A resume must always be customized to its audience. Before you begin to construct your resume, do your homework, learn the language of the employer and industry you are targeting, and rethink your skills from that perspective. What has meaning? If you are applying for different types of positions, you will probably want to create several versions of your resume—one for each line of work you are pursuing.
For advertised positions, let the job announcement and the employer’s website guide you in creating a resume. It is only slightly more difficult to create a resume for unsolicited, cold contacts. Do research to determine what skills are desired by the employer/industry. Conducting informational interviews is a highly useful approach to gathering information for any job application. This strategy will enable you to learn valuable information from someone inside the field.
Graduate students possess advanced skills and attributes valued by many employers. Be aware, though, that some work cultures not heavily populated by PhDs may harbor biases about advanced degree holders that can work against you. Misperceptions about graduate-level job applicants may include:
You can dispel these myths upfront in your resume by writing in everyday language, by stressing your effective time management and teamwork abilities, and so on.
Because these anxieties and misperceptions sometimes exist, graduate students should be extra careful not to include information on their resumes that is irrelevant to the job or to the employer. You may feel especially proud of a talk you gave at a national conference, but unless scholarly presentations have meaning to the employer, you should leave the academic citation of that talk off your resume. This can be painful. Ask yourself: is paying the price of no job interview worth holding onto that line on your resume? Probably not. With every piece of information on your resume, consider what message it sends. Does that piece of information add anything new, or have you already gotten that message across?
Keep in mind, too, that timing is everything. Some employers may actually be interested in some of your scholarly achievements—later, when they have gotten to know you—but not when they are trying to work their way through a pile of job applications, and you are a piece of paper. Exercise good judgment on timing.
Lists all experience in reverse chronological order. This most traditional type of resume highlights a progressive record and best suits job seekers who have moved forward along a particular career path. This format may be less effective for people changing career pursuits, those who have little work experience, and those who wish to make a case for the transferability of skills to a different line of work. In addition, someone with old but very relevant experience should not choose this format as it will bury a strength at the end of the resume.
Often an effective format for graduate students. This format groups experiences into categories based on their function (e.g. research experience, leadership, technical experience, writing and editing, marketing), and lists them in reverse chronological order within each category. The categories are prioritized according to relevance. This format can highlight a less recent but highly relevant experience. Carefully chosen category headings help to give the applicant an immediately recognizable identity, grabbing the reader’s attention. Sometimes job seekers have to be creative in grouping experiences.
Actual job titles and dates of experience are simply listed at the top or bottom of the resume without accompanying descriptions. The bulk of the resume consists of grouped general descriptions of skills used in one or more of the experiences (e.g. project management, communication skills, leadership, organizational skills). This format is most useful for people changing careers and for those who have little work experience because it emphasizes transferable skills and deemphasizes gaps in employment or a lack of experience. Beware, though, that many employers dislike this format, preferring instead to see exactly what you did, where you did it, and when.
Another potentially effective format for graduate students. The combination resume combines the advantages of the chronological and functional resumes by listing past experiences chronologically and categorizing the functional descriptions for each experience by skill sets (e.g. communication skills, leadership, analytical/technical skills). This format is suited to job seekers with only a few major experiences that employed multiple skills. It can also help graduate students to showcase the relevance of their teaching and research experiences, and the transferable skills those tasks require. As with the modified chronological resume, sometimes job seekers have to be creative in grouping their skills for this format.
By definition, resumes are individualistic documents whose goals and audiences vary widely. You should therefore carefully create sections that best highlight your strengths and speak to your audience. Arrange these sections in order of importance to the reader.
List your name (prominently), physical address, telephone number, and email address at the top of your resume. Use an email address that sounds professional ("" may be frowned upon). Provide the address of your personal website only if the site is professional.
Never include personal information, such as your social security number, age or birth date, nationality, citizenship, race, sex, or marital status. Foreign nationals may include a positive statement of their work authorization status here or at the end of the resume if they wish to do so.
For current students and recent graduates, this section usually appears toward the top of the resume. If your experience is a bigger selling point, however, put that before your education. List each degree, institution name, city and state, and graduation (or expected graduation) date. You may include your GPAs if you wish. Consulting firms and investment banks expressly look for GPA and SAT scores. Include any widely recognizable honors, such as Phi Beta Kappa or summa cum laude. Include relevant coursework, if applicable, as well as information on your dissertation or thesis only if relevant. Keep this section brief.
This section should occupy the greatest amount of space on your resume. Think in terms of experience, not employment or work history—include internships, volunteer work, leadership roles, and other unpaid positions if relevant. On the first line of each experience entry, list your position, the organization or employer, the city and state, and the dates. Relevant accomplishments should be described in concise bullet points. Steer clear of complicated language and long blocks of text that are difficult to read quickly. Always consider your audience. Only list experiences that relate to the job you are seeking. Be absolutely sure to translate your skills and accomplishments into the language of the employer and the industry. Avoid such phrases as “Responsibilities included” or “Duties were,” which sound passive.
Each point in your experience description should begin with an action verb (using past tense for previous experience and present tense for current experience) to make a vivid and powerful impression of you as a productive contributor—avoid personal pronouns altogether.
Resume Action Verbs
| Abstracted | Consulted | Expanded | Investigated | Recommended |
| Achieved | Contributed | Expedited | Issued | Reconciled |
| Acted | Controlled | Experienced | Justified | Recruited |
| Adapted | Converted | Experimented | Keynoted | Reduced |
| Addressed | Convinced | Explained | Lectured | Referred |
| Administered | Cooperated | Extrapolated | Led | Reorganized |
| Advised | Coordinated | Facilitated | Licensed | Repaired |
| Aided | Correlated | Figured | Maintained | Reported |
| Allocated | Counseled | Financed | Managed | Represented |
| Analyzed | Created | Followed | Marketed | Researched |
| Approved | Critiqued | Forecasted | Mastered | Retrieved |
| Arbitrated | Customized | Formed | Mediated | Reviewed |
| Arranged | Debated | Formulated | Mentored | Revitalized |
| Assembled | Decided | Founded | Merged | Scheduled |
| Assessed | Defined | Gathered | Met deadlines | Served |
| Assigned | Delegated | Generated | Moderated | Set goals |
| Assisted | Delivered | Guided | Monitored | Shaped |
| Attained | Demonstrated | Handled | Motivated | Simplified |
| Authored | Designed | Headed | Negotiated | Solved |
| Balanced | Detailed | Helped | Observed | Sparked |
| Built | Determined | Identified | Operated | Specified |
| Budgeted | Developed | Illustrated | Organized | Spoke |
| Calculated | Devised | Imagined | Originated | Strengthened |
| Chaired | Diagnosed | Implemented | Overhauled | Submitted |
| Checked | Directed | Improved | Oversaw | Succeeded |
| Clarified | Discovered | Improvised | Participated | Summarized |
| Classified | Documented | Increased | Performed | Supervised |
| Coached | Doubled | Influenced | Persuaded | Surveyed |
| Collaborated | Drafted | Informed | Pioneered | Systemized |
| Collated | Drove | Initiated | Planned | Tabulated |
| Collected | Earned | Innovated | Prepared | Tailored |
| Communicated | Educated | Inspected | Prioritized | Tested |
| Compared | Edited | Inspired | Problem solved | Tracked |
| Compiled | Effected | Installed | Processed | Trained |
| Composed | Enabled | Instituted | Produced | Upgraded |
| Computed | Enforced | Instructed | Programmed | Validated |
| Conceived | Engineered | Integrated | Projected | Wrote |
| Conceptualized | Established | Interpreted | Promoted | |
| Conducted | Evaluated | Interviewed | Proved | |
| Consolidated | Examined | Introduced | Provided | |
| Constructed | Executed | Invented | Publicized |
Wherever possible, use numerals and examples in your descriptions to illustrate accomplishments (e.g. “managed $50,000 budget,” “Rated 4.91/5.0 on teaching evaluations”). Highlight the role you played and its effect on outcomes.
If possible, give this section a qualifying label, such as “Research Experience,” “Web Design,” etc. Use multiple experience sections if relevant. Refer to any web links if they reflect your contribution in some way.
An objective is a targeted statement that explicitly and succinctly states the type of job you seek (e.g. “Position in public opinion polling or market research using skills in survey design and statistical analysis.”) If you choose to include an objective statement on your resume, be sure to avoid vacuous language that tells the employer nothing and only wastes space (e.g. “Seeking a challenging opportunity where I can use my creativity”).
Including an objective statement directly under your contact information can help to give your resume an identity. Objective statements are especially useful when submitting unsolicited resumes, particularly if you do not have the option of submitting a cover letter. In this case be careful, though, that your objective is not so targeted as to eliminate you from consideration for other opportunities you may not have imagined. You may also decide that the space required for an objective statement would be better dedicated to promoting your skills and experiences.
A statement of qualifications (otherwise referred to as a “Profile” or a “Summary”) can be an effective way for graduate students to make a case for the transferability or potential application of their skills to sectors of the economy beyond academe. Like the objective, this brief summary can help to give your document an identity and can grab the employer’s attention quickly. This section, too, should be tailored to your target. It can go a long way toward helping employers focus on what you have to offer.
Sample “Qualifications” (or “Profile” or “Summary”)
If you choose to use a summary or an objective on your resume, use only one of the two, not both. Some people create a sort of combination objective and summary, such as:
You may want to include a few impressive honors and awards on your resume to show that that you are a competitive, high achiever, but they usually do not merit a separate section (which requires precious space). If the honors and awards are academic, you can list them in your “Education” section. If a particular award or honor is unfamiliar to your audience, you should briefly explain it to give it meaning. As always, consider whether or not the information sends a relevant message or adds something new. Once you have listed a few awards, adding another does not accomplish much in the way of showing that you have distinguished yourself in your field.
Include a separate section for technical or computer skills if you are applying for a technical position. If the job you seek is not technical, you may wish to include these skills anyway in your “Experience” section/s, as they are likely to impress—unless you prefer not to use them in the future. Pay close attention to what your target employers look for and what they value. Knowledge of computer languages such as SAS and C++ is often particularly desirable, as is proficiency in Excel, PowerPoint, Access, HTML, Dreamweaver, and so on.
You may include your knowledge of foreign languages on your resume, indicating your level of proficiency, especially if relevant to the job or line of work you seek. Many employers are impressed by foreign language skills, even when they are not required on the job, because they demonstrate one’s ability to master a system. Indicate your level of proficiency in brief terms (e.g. fluent in Swahili, proficient in Spanish and French, basic knowledge of Farsi). Especially if relevant to the job you seek, you may also wish to include information on international travel here, or in your “Education” section for study abroad programs.
If you have engaged in particular activities that have meaning to your audience but that do not logically fit into your “Experience” section/s, you may create separate sections for them. It is best to avoid such overly generic section labels as “Activities,” though. Instead think of a more descriptive label (e.g. “Leadership,” “Community Service,” “Volunteer Work”). If you have been affiliated with an organization whose name would disclose personal information (such as religion, ethnicity, political affiliation, or sexual orientation), you need to make the call as to whether this information would help your candidacy. If the skills you gained from these activities make you a better candidate, then including this information may be a good idea. Generally speaking, only in those cases or in situations where advocacy and/or personal information have a direct bearing on a line of work or opportunity is it appropriate to mention your age, ethnicity, marital status, sexual preference, health, race, or religion on your resume.
Do not list references on your resume. If a job announcement requires you to submit references, list them in a separate document with your name and "References" in the heading. Do not include the obsolete expression "References available upon request" on your resume. It wastes space, and everyone assumes that job candidates will produce references if asked.
Include dissertation/thesis information and scholarly publications, presentations, and posters only if they are directly relevant to the job you seek. Remember that a good sense of timing is an important asset on the job market, and cutting this information from your resume does not preclude it from having value later. You may more generally wish to indicate in your experience section/s that you "co-authored and published 3 articles in professional journals," "delivered presentations at 2 national conferences," etc., or indicate that a list of publications is available upon request.
Exclude immaterial information from your resume, such as outdated and irrelevant experiences, and unrelated hobbies and interests. While it is sometimes fine for undergraduates to list hobbies and interests on their resumes, graduate students usually have a hard enough time trimming their information to size without reserving room for what some employers consider as unprofessional “filler” content. Of course there are always exceptions. If you are applying for a position as a wilderness camp counselor with an MA in British Literature, and your hobbies include rattlesnake wrestling and survival training excursions, you would obviously want to share that information. Exercise good judgment.
Resumes are initially scanned for an average of 15-30 seconds. You have a tiny window of opportunity for selling what you have to offer to an employer. Your resume must be very clear and easy to follow, with attention-grabbing content.
In the US resumes are scanned from top to bottom and from left to right. Be strategic in designing the physical layout of your information, with the most important information placed at or near the top of the page, and to the left of each entry (i.e. positions and titles first, dates to the right). Following are additional general guidelines:
Many large organizations increasingly rely on computers to scan resumes into their databases, categorizing them by keywords. The guidelines for resumes that will be scanned into a computer system differ somewhat from basic resume-writing guidelines. If you suspect that your resume may be scanned by computer, you may wish to follow these additional guidelines: